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Battle of world’s tallest waterfall

Which is the world’s tallest waterfall?

There are two contenders for the title of world’s tallest waterfall. Angel Falls is found in Venezuela and Tugela Falls in South Africa, but which one claims the title depends on the criteria. The debate is whether to award the title to the tallest single drop or to the tallest sequence of falls.

Angel Falls easily wins the tallest drop contest with a breathtaking 807-metre (2,648-foot) cascade.

Angel Falls was named after aviator Jimmie Angel who spotted it from the air while searching for gold in the region ,Angel Falls was originally measured in 1949

Tugela Falls is a series of five falls in quick succession, which taken together drop a total 948 metres (3,110 feet). When Angel Falls was originally measured in 1949, the American expedition included a second 30-metre (98-foot) plunge farther downstream.

If you include the sloping rapids between these two falls, the total drop in elevation is 979 metres (3,212 feet).

STEM CELLS:BUILDING BLOCKS BRING NEW LIFE

Understand how these building blocks bring new life

Stem cells are incredibly special because they have the potential to become any kind of cell in the body, from red blood cells to brain cells. They are essential to life andgrowth, as they repair tissues and replace dead cells. Skin, for example, is constantly replenished by skin stem cells. Stem cells begin their life cycle as generic, featureless cells that don’t contain tissue-speciﬁc structures, such as the ability to carry oxygen. Stem cells become specialised through a process called differentiation. This is triggered by signals inside and outside the cell. Internal signals come from strands of DNA that carry information for all cellular structures, while external signals include chemicals from nearby cells. Stem cells can replicate many times known as proliferation while others such as nerve cells don’t divide at all. There are two stem cell types, as Professor Paul Fair child, co-director of the Oxford Stem Cell Institute at Oxford Martin School explains: “Adult stem cells are multipotent, which means they are able to produce numerous cells that are loosely related, such as stem cells in the bone marrow can generate cells that make up the blood,” he says. “In contrast, pluripotent stem cells, found within developing embryos, are able to make any one of the estimated 210 cell types that make up the human body.” This fascinating ability to transform and divide has made stem cells a rich source for medical research. Once their true potential has been harnessed, they could be used to treat a huge range of diseases and disabilitie

Stem cells have been used to restore the sight of patients suffering from certain forms of blindness

How to grow a stem cell Fertilised human embryos that have been donated for research have plenty of stem cells inside them as the cells are yet to fully form. Scientists extract the cells and put them into a culture dish. This is ﬁ lled with a culture medium, which is a mixture of nutrients that encourages the cells to divide and grow. As the cells divide they are placed into multiple dishes, each trying to complete an embryonic stem cell line. If a line is completed, it can then be used for further research and development

Cloning cells

Scientists can reprogram cells to forget their current role and become pluripotent cells again indistinguishable from early embryonic stem cells. These are called induced pluripotent stem cells (IPSCs) and can be used in areas of the body where they are needed, taking on the characteristics of nearby cells. IPSCs are more reliable than stem cells grown from a donated embryo because the body is more likely to accept stem cells generated by itself. IPSCs can treat degenerative conditions such as Parkinson’s disease and baldness, which are caused by cells dying without being replaced. The IPSCs ﬁ ll those gaps, restoring the body’s systems. Professor Fairchild says IPSCs could help ﬁnd a cure for certain disorders: “By deriving these cells from individuals with rare conditions, we are able to model the condition in the laboratory and investigate the effects of new drugs on that disease.“

ENVIRONMENT:CAVE CREATION

Caves can for many where whether it’s in the surface of the Earth,underwater or even inside mountains.In fact,any lump of rock has the potential to turn into a cave because they’re created by erosion, which can happen by a number of means. The most common kind of cave is called a solution cave. These tend to be made of rocks such as limestone or gypsum, as they dissolve faster in water than other kinds of rock. Water falling as rain collects carbon dioxide from the atmosphere before descending through the ground. The carbon dioxide mixed with rainwater can form carbonic acid, which is a key ingredient in dissolving the rock, especially in places where there is an existing ﬁ ssure. Further erosion and collapse transforms these cracks into networks of tunnels and caves. The water will either stay in the base of the cave once it reaches rock that it can’t dissolve, or ﬂows out through a hole to begin the whole process again. Some of the most incredible formations in cave structures are stalactites and stalagmites. Stalactites are the pointy shards that descend from the roof of a cave. These are created when the dripping rainwater collects calcium carbonate on its way through the rock. Once it reaches the open space the calcium carbonate solidiﬁes. This builds up as water drips along the stalactite before hardening. Stalagmites are made of calcium carbonate too, but build from the base of the cave upward if the water has dripped down before becoming solid. Underwater and overground caves are formed in similar ways. Rock is repeatedly attacked by a force of nature, such as ocean tides, winds or sand. This bombardment wears away at the rock, creating a dent that gets steadily bigger until a cave is formed

Four main types of cave
Solution cave
This is the most common kind of cave in the world. Formed from water moving through carbonate or sulphate rock, these types of cave grow to form some of the largest caverns on Earth.

Lava cave

Created when lava is ﬂ owing along a path and part of it cools and hardens. This leaves the still molten lava inside to continue ﬂ owing, ultimately resulting in hollow lava tubes.

Glacier cave

The most common cause is melt water running through, or under, the glacier. This widens crevices and carves out chutes, which will then increase in size during the summer months.

Sea cave

Underwater and coastal rocks are constantly battered by waves. This action erodes the weaker parts of the rock. Some of these get ﬂooded and become underwater cave systems.

10 Cool things you must know before 2015

World population on the rise

The world population is predicted to reach 12.3 billion by 2100. Previous claims had stated that population growth would stabilize and the number of people on Earth would plateau by 2100,but new research has stated that increased fertility rates and life expectancy, particularly in Africa, is the reason for the rise.As a result, renewed population policies may have to be proposed.

Renewable energy gets a boost

A new type of battery has been made that could be invaluable to future renewable energy production. The lithium-antimony-lead liquid metal battery has the ability to store vast amounts of electricity. Utilising a negative electrode, the battery has a much lower operating temperature than previous designs and will maintain around 85 per cent of its original efﬁciency even after a decade of daily use.

Scientists create a shape-shifting metal

Scientists have created a new type of liquid metal. Formed from an alloy of gallium and indium, the material has a bright future and is being predicted to self-repair electronic structures and circuits. A liquid at room temperature, the alloy is the shape of a ball, but goes ﬂat when exposed to voltage

New truck will save lives

Senior lecturers from Lough borough University have designed a new type of lorry that could save cyclist and pedestrian lives. The new-look cab will eliminate blind spots and increase the driver’s ﬁ eld of vision. The model created by the team will have a cab that is 80 centimetres (31.5 inches) longer with a more rounded front. The emphasis will be on sight with a smaller dashboard but larger and more windows.

There’s a new treatment to regenerate bones

Osteoporosis a condition that weakens bones–could be combated by an injection of calcium phosphate. This paste will contain stem cells encased in microspheres. Stem cells of ten struggle to survive when entering the body,but the casing will aim to safely transport the cells to the bones.

All-electric Formula E begins

Electric racing cars took to the streets of Beijing as the ﬁrst-ever Formula E Championship began.The ﬁrst of its kind, the competition will look to provide the same thrill ride as Formula 1, but without the carbon emissions. It will run until June 2015.

Brains have their own (free) ‘calorie counters’

Our brains naturally works out the calorie content of different foods when we look at a menu. That’s according to neuro imaging research, which sought to determine how our awareness of calories inﬂ uenced the brain. The study found that although calorie estimations were off the mark, people were willing to pay high prices for high-calorie food, showing their desire to consume it.

There are three types of Europeans

New research has suggested that the European different peoples:blue-eyed hunters,brown-eyed farmers and an in ﬂux of groups from Siberia.The ﬁndings were discovered by analysing genomes and shows that Europe was originally an area of blue-eyed hunter-gatherers before the arrival of brown-eyed farming communities from the east around 7,500 years ago.

We could build a lift to space

A real stairway to heaven could be made in the future using the extraordinary properties of diamond nano threads. The new material was developed by researchers at Penn State University, USA and is composed of a string of carbon atoms. Created under extreme pressure, the nano thread is extremely tough and one of the main hopes for the breakthrough is to create a space-lift system.

There’s a new trip to Mars

The latest NASA mission to Mars is named MAVEN and took ten months to reach Martian orbit. The satellite’s task will be to monitor the planet’s atmosphere in an attempt to ﬁnd out why it is so devoid of air. MAVEN will look to ﬁnd out what effects the Sun has had on the Red Planet’s climate throughout history and why Mars has lost all of its water.

How have things changed?

How have things changed? Family life has been transformed in the last 50 years. We eat different food, have different jobs and play different games. Can you spot any more differences?

1955
There were no electronic games or computers in the 50s. Kids played with toys like Lego, dolls and board games, which are still popular today!Televisions were invented in the 1920s, but they were very expensive. Most families couldn’t afford one. They listened to the ‘wireless’ instead.
Most mums didn’t have jobs. They stayed at home to do housework and look after the children.
Rationing in the Second World War meant that families had to eat a lot less. Now that war was over, food was plentiful again.

1975
Different foods were being imported from all over the world. Most families could afford a TV. Toys like this Etch A Sketch were very popular.

1995

20 years later, it was normal for mums to go out to work. Electronic games like Game Boys had been invented, and the internet was on the rise.

Today

These days nearly everyone owns a smartphone or an iPad. This means we can connect to the internet anywhere we want! We eat a lot more healthily, too

Five Most Bloodthirsty Pirates

Throughout history these fearsome felons have terrorised the world’s oceans. Pirates captured ships and stole the treasure, killing anyone who stood in their way

Black Bart Lived from 1682-1722
Born in Wales Black Bart was one of the most successful pirates to sail the seven seas. He was famous for being ‘pistol-proof’, and looted over 400 ships during his lifetime.

François l’Olonnais Lived from 1635-1668 Born in France Stories say that this bloodthirsty pirate once ate a man’s heart. But he became dinner himself when he was captured by a tribe of people who wanted to eat him… CANNIBALS!

Ching Shih Lived from 1775-1844 Born in China This lady took control of a pirate ﬂeet when her husband died. With 300 ships and 20,000 men, she terrorised the China Sea and was never defeated.

Blackbeard Lived from 1680-1718 Born in England This famous and fearsome pirate would storm onto ships with a sword in each hand, and even tied ﬂ aming fuses to his hat to scare his enemies.

Long Ben Lived from 1659-1696 Born in England Long Ben became the richest pirate in the world when he captured an Indian treasure ship that was laden with gold and jewels.

Who were the richest people in the world ever?

All through history, there are some people who made massive piles of treasure or money. Here’s a list of the richest people who ever lived!

Mansa Musa I

Lived 700 years ago How much money would he have today? £240 billion / $400 billion Mansa Musa I was the ruler of the West African Malian Empire. He got his money from the empire’s huge salt and gold trade.

Henry, Duke of Lancaster

Lived 700 years ago How much money would he have today? £50 billion / $85 billion Henry inherited valuable farm land from his father. He then made loads more money by helping the king, and was rewarded with more land

Cleopatra

Lived: 2,000 years ago How much money would she have today? £62 billion / $106 billion Cleopatra was the Queen of Egypt. Ancient stories say that she once dissolved precious pearls into vinegar and drank them with her dinner. Now that’s rich!

Bill Gates

58 years old How much money does he have today? £81 billion / $136 billion Bill Gates started up Microsoft in 1975. He made billions of dollars by making computers, computer programs and lots of other cool technology.

William the Conqueror

Lived 1,000 years ago How much money would he have today? £137 billion / $230 billion Will became King of England when he won the Battle of Hastings. He made everyone pay him lots of money in tax.

John D Rockefeller

Lived 80 years ago How much money would he have today? £200 billion / $340 billion USA’s ﬁrst billionaire was John D Rockefeller. He made his money from a massive oil empire, but gave over $530 million to charity too!

World of Wealth

$10,000 The largest US bank note ever to be used. It was issued in 1939

2 ,5OO YEARS That’s how long !)?* )*& ?‡?,-.? started using coins

Half full If Mansa Musa’s gold was put in an Olympic-sized swimming pool, it would be half full

22 blue whales The same weight as all of the gold stored at Fort Knox Bullion Depository in the United States

LATEST DISCOVERIES UPDATES

10 Ants to help in climate change battle

Though most renowned for their unerring ability to ruin picnics, it seems ants may prove to be vital allies in the fight against climate change. Rocks containing calcium and magnesium naturally absorb the greenhouse gas carbon dioxide as they break down, locking CO2 into calcium carbonate. Ronald Dorn of Arizona State University has found that ants increase the amount of calcium carbonate by 300 times, locking up more CO2. If the process can be further studied and enhanced, it may be

09 Biological pacemakers

Innovative gene therapy techniques could potentially replace the need for electronic pacemakers. Researchers in LA injected pigs suffering from heart block, a condition in which the electrical pulses controlling the heartbeat are disrupted, with a gene called TBX18. After 24 hours, regular heart cells began changing into specialised cells that keep the heart beating, they say.

08 Electricity from water

From cooking and cleaning to keeping us hydrated, water is essential. But now, scientists have found another potential use for the wet stuff: generating electricity in gadgets. Last year, MIT researchers found that water droplets gain electric charge when they ‘jump’ away from superhydrophobic surfaces – materials designed to repel water. By layering together many sheets of material, the team has produced

07 Cancer-halting gene found

Eighty per cent of patients diagnosed with lung cancer die within five years. Now, researchers have found a gene that can halt the movement of cancer from the lungs to other body parts. The research could lead to more effective treatments. The team found that ‘turning on’ the gene DIXDC1 reduces the cancer’s tendency to spread.

06 Nanotubes used to make hydrogen

With fossil fuels possibly running out by the end of the century, the search for new energy sources is gathering pace. Now, a team at Rutgers University has developed a low-cost method for producing clean-burning hydrogen fuel. The technology uses carbon nanotubes as a catalyst to create hydrogen and oxygen from water using electrolysis. The fuel could be used to power cars

05 Immunity to alcohol

Ever woken up regretting the previous night’s overindulgence? Read on. Neuroscientists at the University of Texas have created ‘mutant’ worms that don’t get intoxicated by alcohol, a discovery that may help those struggling with addiction and withdrawal. The team implanted a molecule into nematode worms that’s responsible for binding to alcohol and triggering drunken behaviour in humans. They found the worms did not get drunk regardless of how much alcohol they consumed.

04 Artificial blood from stem cells

The ability to create human blood in the laboratory has come one step closer to reality. Researchers at the University of Wisconsin-Madison have discovered two genetic pathways by which blood cells develop from pluripotent stem cells. The discovery pins down exactly how blood is produced in nature and gives the scientists the means to produce the whole range of human blood cells, including the essential white and red cells.

03 Liquid hard drive

Next time you see a glass of liquid next to someone’s laptop think twice before taking a swig. You may be downing important documents or even their holiday snaps. A team at the University of Michigan has created a hard drive that suspends nanoparticles in water in special arrangements to st oer data. The technology could potentially store a terabyte of data in just one tablespoon of liquid. The hope is that the technology could eventually be used in medical devices placed inside the body.

02 Better glue from barnacles

When it comes to staying put there are few creatures that can compete with the barnacle. The arthropods can stick themselves to any surface, even underwater. Biologists at Newcastle University discovered that they achieve this by first secreting an oil to repel water from a surface. They then secrete a powerful protein-based adhesive that sticks them fast. Further study could lead to synthetic bio adhesives for use in medical implants.

01 Shape-shifting robots

Remember the morphing form of the robot in Terminator 2? Well, researchers at MIT have developed a ‘squishy’ material that could allow real-life robots to accomplish the same feat. Working with robotics experts Boston Dynamics, the team has created a substance built

from wax and foam that can switch between hard and soft states, thanks to heat that partially melts the wax. The technology could be used to build everything from deformable surgical robots to octopus-like limbs for search and rescue drones.

10 Things you didn't know about sleep

264 Hours is the longest Documented stretch that anyone has stayed awake

randy-gardner-world-record-holder-for-longest-sleep-deprivation-18days

In 1964, a San Diego student named Randy Gardner stayed awake without any kind of stimulants for 11 days, experiencing phantom sounds and visions the longer he went without sleep. When he finally fell asleep, he slept for nearly 15 hours. No long-term ill effects were reported.

Artififial lights have changed our natural sleeping patterns

Without them, we would sleep in two blocks each night. We would fall asleep around 10pm and wake up a few hours later, going back to sleep after an hour. Psychologist Thomas Wehr found people revert to sleeping this way if isolated from artificial lights for more than a few weeks.

Some animals only send half their brain to sleep

In dolphins and whales, for instance, this gives them the ability to surface for air and be on the lookout for danger while still technically sleeping. Ducks are also able to sleep with one eye shut and one-half of their brains asleep, allowing some of the birds to stand watch while others in the group rest.

Female sleep is the key to a happy marriage

Psychiatrist Wendy Troxel of the University of Pittsburgh recently found that a woman’s ability to fall and stay asleep had a greater impact on marital satisfaction than her daily interactions with her husband. The same effect was not found for men in relationships.

Sleeping rhythms can affect sport performance

Researchers at Stanford University and the University of Maine found that circadian rhythms the natural cycles that govern when we’re awake and when we’re sleepy have an ‘outsized effect’ on professional sports: athletes at their peak circadian rhythms have an unseen advantage over their opponents.

Therapy may be better treatment for insomia than sleeping pills

Psychologist Charles Morin of Laval University in Quebec found that people who used cognitive behavioural therapy to deal with sleepless nights reported much better overall sleep quality than those treated with sleeping pills alone.

The world have vastly different sleep patterns

Jodi Mindell of the Children’s Hospital of Philadelphia and Avi Sadeh of Telaviv University found that 95 per cent of babies in Vietnam sleep in their parents’ bed, compared to 15 per cent in Australia. In New Zealand, the average bedtime for an infant is 7.30pm; in Hong Kong, it’s 10.30pm.

Dreams tend to follow well defined patterns

In his lifetime, Calvin Hall, a psychology professor at Case Western Reserve University in Cleveland, collected more than 50,000 dream reports from anyone who’d share them. Using Hall’s database, researchers identified that we tend to dream about the things that make us anxious. Adults tend to dream about other adults, while children are more likely to dream of animals.

Sleep may help us to learn new skills

After having people play the video game Tetris before they went to sleep, Robert Stickgold of Harvard Medical School found that test subjects tended to dream about the game that night. Those subjects who dreamed about the game showed the most dramatic improvement once they played it again the next day.

16-19°C is the ideal temperature for a good night's sleep

Research in Lille, France arrived at this figure for someone sleeping in pyjamas and covered by sheets. If they sleep naked, the ideal temperature jumps to 30-32ºC.